Muslim ‘Belonging’ in the West and Some Global Implications
Abstract
The provenance of Muslims in the West is multifarious. During the Crusades, a few Europeans had converted to Islam, but a majority of them converted during the Ottoman rule. During the colonial era, the colonial masters had moved the ‘natives’ around for their own ventures, and some of these ‘natives’ ended up in the West. In recent times, refugees have come to the West in order to escape conflict zones; similarly, individuals have migrated to the West in order to improve their financial situations or pursue higher studies. As the population in the West decreases, there is also a constant need for migrants. The belongingness of Muslims in the West has been of perennial concern due to factors like racism, islamophobia, rightist-populist antagonism and ultra-nationalism. But belongingness is not just a localised insulated phenomenon; it also has global affects and implications. To ensure positive Muslim belongingness in the West, the local problems obviously require to be secured; but, moreover, there is a need to fix the global issues related to the phenomenon and alter some ingrained perceptions efficaciously.
Keywords
Muslim belonging, Migration causes, Racism, Populists, Terrorists, Global implications
References
- Adler, Katya. “Is Europe Lurching to the Right?” BBC, April 28, 2016. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36150807.
- Ali, Jan. “Australian Muslims as Radicalised ‘Other’ and their Experiences.” In Islam in the West: Perceptions and Reactions, edited by Abe W. Ata and Jan A. Ali, 108-128. UK: Oxford University Press, 2018.
- Ali, Jan, and Drew Cottle. “Islam-West Relations and the Rise of Muslim Radicalisation and Global Jihadism.” In Islam in the West: Perceptions and Reactions, edited by Abe W. Ata and Jan A. Ali, 156-175. UK: Oxford University Press, 2018.
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. “Census of Population and Housing: Reflecting Australia - Stories from the Census, 2016.” Cat. no. 2071.0, June 28, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170710020910/http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/2071.0~2016~Main%20Features~Religion%20Data%20Summary~25.
- “Austrian Court Axes Decision to Shut Down Mosques.” Anadolu Agency, February 15, 2019. Accessed April 9, 2020. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/politics/austrian-court-axes- decision-to-shut-down-mosques-/1393601.
- “Austria’s Far-Right Politicians Target Muslim Institutions with New Law.” Daily Sabah, September 27, 2019. Accessed April 10, 2020. https://www.dailysabah.com/islamophobia/ 2019/09/27/austrias-far-right-politicians-target-muslim-institutions-with-new-law.
- Barker, Martin. The New Racism: Conservatives and the Ideology of the Tribe. Frederick, Maryland: University Publications of America, 1981.
- Baer, Marc, Ussama Makdisi and Andrew Shryock. “Tolerance and Conversion in the Ottoman Empire: A Conversation.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 51, no. 40 (2009): 927–940.
- Basu, Moni. “15 Years after 9/11, Sikhs still Victims of anti-Muslim Hate Crimes.” CNN, September 15, 2016. Accessed April 17, 2020. https://edition.cnn.com/2016/09/15/us/sikh- hate-crime-victims/index.html.
- Castelli, Francesco. “Drivers of Migration: Why do People Move?” Journal of Travel Medicine 25, no. 1 (2018): 1-7.
- Castles, Stephen, and Mark J. Miller. The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 1993.
- Campo, Juan. Encyclopedia of Islam. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2010. Ebook edition.
- Clayer, Nathalie. "Saints and Sufis in post-Communist Albania." In Popular Movements and Democratization in the Islamic World, edited by Masatoshi Kisachi, 33-42. London: Routledge, 2007.
- Cox, Oliver C. Class Cast and Race: A Study of Social Dynamics. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1959.
- Daalder, Ivo. “Decision to Intervene: How the War in Bosnia Ended.” Brookings Institution, December 1, 1998. Accessed May 22, 2020. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/decision-to-intervene-how-the-war-in-bosnia-ended/.
- Delgado, Richard, and Jean Stefancic. Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. New York: New York University Press, 2001.
- Eddy, Melissa. “Austria Closes 7 Mosques and Seeks to Expel Imams Paid by Turkey.” New York Times, June 8, 2018. Accessed April 9, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/ 2018/06/08/world/europe/austria-islam-mosques-turkey.html.
- Elahi, Farah, and Omar Khan. Islamophobia: Still a Challenge for Us. 20th Anniversary Report. London: Runnymede Trust, 2019.
- Elkins, Zachary, Tom Ginsburg and James Melton. “On the Influence of Magna Carta and Other Cultural Relics.” International Review of Law and Economics 47 (2016): 3-9. doi: 10.1016/j.irle.2016.05.004.
- “Europe and Right-Wing Nationalism: A Country-by-Country Guide.” BBC, November 13, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36130006.
- Farmer, Brian R. Radical Islam in the West: Ideology and Challenge. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 2010.
- Fisher, Michael H. Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600-1857. Delhi: Permanent Black, 2006.
- “Fury as Australian Senator Blames Christchurch Attack on Muslim Immigration.” The Guardian, March 16, 2019. Accessed March 21, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/ world/2019/mar/15/australian-senator-fraser-anning-criticised-blaming-new-zealand-
- attack-on-muslim-immigration.
- Gates, Warren E. “The Spread of Ibn Khaldun’s Ideas on Climate and Culture.” Journal of the History of Ideas 28, no. 3 (1967): 415–22.
- Giddens, Anthony, and Phillip W. Sutton. Sociology. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2013.
- “Global Uptick in Government Restrictions on Religion in 2016.” Pew Research Center, June 21, 2018. Accessed April 18, 2020. https://www.pewforum.org/2018/06/21/global-uptick- in-government-restrictions-on-religion-in-2016/.
- Hackett, Conrad. “5 Facts about the Muslim Population in Europe.” Pew Research Center, November 29, 2017. Accessed April 16, 2020. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/ 2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/.
- Haider, Mohammed J. The First Command: Iqra and its Impact on Global Intellectualism and the Renaissance. Kuala Lumpur: The Other Press, 2018.
- Hasan, Masudul. History of Islam: Classical Period 571 - 1258 CE. New Delhi: Adam Publishers, 2004.
- Hasan, Masudul. Hadrat Abu Bakr Siddique. New Delhi: Kitab Bhaban, 1997.
- Hassan, Mourad. “The Development and Land Use Impacts of Local Mosques.” Bachelor’s diss., University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2006.
- Henkel, Heiko. “Fundamentally Danish? The Muhammad Cartoon Crisis as Transitional Drama.” Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge 8, no. 2 (2010): 67-82. https://www.okcir.com/Articles%20VIII%202/Henkel-FM.pdf.
- Karasz, Palko. “Australian Senator Hit With Egg After Blaming Immigration for Mosque Attacks.” New York Times, March 16, 2019. Accessed September 4, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/16/world/australia/australia-anning-egg-new-zealand- shooting.html.
- Khan, M. Ilyas. “Kashmir Crisis 2019: Between a Rock and a Hard Place.” BBC News, December 24, 2019. Accessed April 14, 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50826419.
- Krstić, Tijana. “Illuminated by the Light of Islam and the Glory of the Ottoman Sultanate: Self-Narratives of Conversion to Islam in the Age of Confessionalisation.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 51, no. 1 (2009): 35-63. doi: 10.1017/S0010417509000036.
- Kyzy, Aruuke U. “Is Russia on the Path to Marginalising its Muslim Population?” TRT World, February 6, 2019. https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/is-russia-on-the-path-to- marginalising-its-muslim-population-23927.
- Lane, Rose W. The Discovery of Freedom—Man’s Struggle Against Authority. New York: John Day Company, 1943.
- “Like U.S. Public Overall, Muslims Concerned about Extremism in name of Islam.” Pew Research Center, July 24, 2017. Accessed April 20, 2020. https://www.pew forum.org/2017/07/26/findings-from-pew-research-centers-2017-survey-of-us-muslims/ pf_2017-06-26_muslimamericans-00new-00/.
- Lipka, Michael. “Muslims and Islam: Key Findings in the US and around the World.” Pew Research Center, August 9, 2017. Accessed April 16, 2020. https://www.pewresearch.org/ fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/.
- Lyons, Jonathan. The House of Wisdom—How the Arabs Transformed Western Civilisation. London: Bloomsbury, 2009.
- Lyons, Jonathan. Islam Through the Western Eyes: From the Crusades to the War on Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.
- Makdisi, John A. “The Islamic Origin of the Common Law.” North Carolina Law Review 77, no. 5 (1999): 1637-1738.
- Masci, David. “Many Americans see Religious Discrimination in US especially against Muslims.” Pew Research Centre, May 17, 2019. Accessed April 18, 2020. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/05/17/many-americans-see-religious- discrimination-in-u-s-especially-against-muslims/.
- Mason, Rowena, Anuska Asthana and Heather Stewart. “Tony Blair: ‘I Express more Sorrow, Regret and Apology than you can ever Believe.’” The Guardian, July 6, 2016. Accessed April 20, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/jul/06/tony-blair- deliberately-exaggerated-threat-from-iraq-chilcot-report-war-inquiry.
- Murshid, Ghulam. The Call of the Sea: History of Bangali in Britain. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Abosar, 2008.
- Phillips, Michael. “Launching the Missile that made History.” The Wall Street Journal, October 1, 2011. Accessed May 22, 2020. https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052 970204138204576598851109446780.
- Ramadan, Tariq. Being a European Muslim. Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, 1999.
- Runnymede Trust Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia. Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All. London, UK: Runneymede Trust, 1997. https://www.runnymede trust.org/companies/17/74/Islamophobia-A-Challenge-for-Us-All.html.
- Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978.
- Sengupta, Somini, and Henry Fountain. “The Biggest Refugee Camp Braces for Rain: ‘This is Going to be a Catastrophe.’” New York Times, March 14, 2018. Accessed September 4, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/14/climate/bangladesh-rohingya-refugee-camp.html.
- Siddiqui, Habib. “China’s Forced Assimilation of Uyghurs is Repugnant and Dehumanizing – OpEd.” Eurasia Review, November 4, 2019. https://www.eurasiareview.com/04112019- chinas-forced-assimilation-of-uyghurs-is-repugnant-and-dehumanizing-oped/.
- Siedschlag, Beatrice N. English Participation in the Crusades, 1150–1220. Wisconsin: The Collegiate Press, George Banta Publishing Company, 1939.
- Sheehan, Jack G. Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People. Massachusetts: Olive Branch Press, 2009.
- Statistics Canada. “2011 National Household Survey: Data Tables.” https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH= 3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=0&PID=1053 99&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEM E=95&VID=0.
- Stats NZ. “2018 Census Totals by Topic – National Highlights.” September 23, 2019. Accessed October 24, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190923102431/ https:/www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.
- “Sweden hit by Third Mosque Arson Attack in a Week.” Straits Times, January 2, 2015. Accessed March 20, 2020. https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/sweden-hit-by- third-mosque-arson-attack-in-a-week.
- Tahhan, Zena. “Austria Face Veil Ban ‘Criminalises Muslim Women.’” Al Jazeera, October 2, 2017. Accessed April 6, 2020. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/10/austria-face- veil-ban-criminalises-muslim-women-171001104455120.html.
- Tester, Jim. A History of Western Astrology. Boydell Press, UK: Woodbridge, 1987.
- “Turkey’s TİKA delivers humanitarian aid for Rohingya refugees.” The Daily Sabah, April 30, 2020. Accessed September 5, 2020. https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/diplomacy /turkeys-tika-delivers-humanitarian-aid-for-rohingya-refugees.
- Turner, Bryan, and Kamaludeen Nasir, eds. The Sociology of Islam: Collected Essays of Bryan S. Turner. Surry: Ashgate, 2013.
- Turner, Bryan, and Bema Z. Arslan. “Sharia and Legal Pluralism in the West.” In The Sociology of Islam: Collected Essays of Bryan S. Turner, edited by Bryan Turner and Kamaludeen Nasir, 273-294. Surry: Ashgate, 2013.
- Urry, John. Mobilities. Cambridge: Polity, 2007.
- “U.S. Muslims Concerned about their Place in Society, but Continue to Believe in the American Dream.” Pew Research Centre, July 26, 2017. Accessed April 19, 2020. https://www.pewforum.org/2017/07/26/findings-from-pew-research-centers-2017-survey- of-us-muslims/.
- Van Hear, Nicholas, Oliver Bakewell and Kathy Long. “Push-pull Plus: Reconsidering the Drivers of Migration.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 44, no. 6 (2018): 927-944. doi: 10.1080/1369183X.2017.1384135.
- Waldman, Peter, and Hugh Pope. “‘Crusade’ Reference Reinforces Fears War on Terrorism is Against Muslims.” Wall Street Journal, September 21, 2001. Accessed April 20, 2020. https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001020294332922160.
- Whitby, Mary. Chronicon Paschale [The Encyclopedia of Ancient History]. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2012. doi: 10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah03045.