Finding the Moral High Ground: The Unshackled as Defenders of ‘Truth’
Abstract
Immigration and border protection have consistently stood at the forefront of issues that divide Australians ideologically. The scholarly literature in this regard documents the role of conservative right-wing media in the formulation of anti-immigration rhetoric, particularly in relation to Muslim immigrants. This research builds on this literature, further exploring the role of ideology in shaping public perceptions. This study examines how an alternative news outlet – The Unshackled – reported on Islamic issues in 2019, the year prior to the COVID pandemic. While there is significant literature on media representations of Islam and Muslims, few studies have explored the relationship between alternative news outlets’ use of ‘free speech’ to spread anti-Islam and anti-Muslim rhetoric and Muslim immigration to Australia. By examining the coverage of Islam by The Unshackled, this article posits that, through the frame of free speech, the outlet gave voice and authority to unreliable commentators with anti-Islam, nativist views. This led to dissemination of information that lacked credibility and factual accuracy, reinforcing an image of Islam that contributes to negative sentiments regarding the religion and its followers, and further straining relations between Muslims and non-Muslims in Australia.
Keywords
journalism, alternative media, far-right, Islamophobia, Facebook, Islam
References
- Afira, Muhammad Ridho Inzaghi Putra. “The Role and Impact of Australian Refugee Policy in Asia-Pacific Region: From Australia-Cambodia Agreement to Rohingya Crisis.” Mandala: Jurnal Ilmu Hubungan Internasional 4, no. 1 (2021): 102-13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33822/mjihi.v4i1.1851
- Akbarzadeh, Shahram, and Bianca Smith. “The Representation of Islam and Muslims in the Media.” School of Political and Social Inquiry 4 (2005): 1-38.
- Amnesty International. “What is Free Speech?” September 25, 2023. Accessed October 5, 2023. https://www.amnesty.org.uk/free-speech-freedom-expression-human-right.
- Anievas, Alexander, and Richard Saull. “The Far-right in World Politics/World Politics in the Far-right.” Globalizations 20, no. 5 (2023): 715-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2022.2035061
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. “Prisoners in Australia, 2022.” February 24, 2023. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice/prisoners-australia/latest-release.
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. “Religious Affiliation in Australia.” July 4, 2022. https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/religious-affiliation-australia.
- Australian Federal Police. “Fighting Home Grown Terrorism.” Accessed June 15, 2023. https://www.afp.gov.au/what-we-do/crime-types/fighting-terrorism/fighting-home-grown-terrorism.
- Awan, Imran. “Islamophobia on Social Media: A Qualitative Analysis of the Facebook’s Walls of Hate.” International Journal of Cyber Criminology 10, no. 1 (2016): 1-20.
- Bargh, John, and Katelyn McKenna. “The Internet and Social Life.” Annual Review of Psychology 55, no. 1 (2004): 573-90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141922
- Biondo III, Vincent. “Council on American-Islamic Relations.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion, edited by John Barton. Oxford University Press, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.836. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.836
- Bleich, Erik, and A. Maurits van der Veen. Covering Muslims: American Newspapers in Comparative Perspective. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197611715.001.0001
- Bloul, Rachel. “Anti-Discrimination Laws, Islamophobia, and Ethnicization of Muslim Identities in Europe and Australia.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 28, no. 1 (2008): 7-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602000802011036. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13602000802011036
- Boberg, Svenja, Thorsten Quandt, Tim Schatto-Eckrodt and Lena Frischlich, “Pandemic Populism: Facebook Pages of Alternative News Media and the Corona Crisis – A Computational Content Analysis.” arXiv (2020): 2004.02566.
- Calo, Ryan, Chris Coward, Emma S. Spiro, Kate Starbird and Jevin D. West. “How do you Solve a Problem like Misinformation?” Science Advances 7, no. 50 (2021): 1-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abn0481
- Carson, Andrea, and Scott Wright. “Fake News and Democracy: Definitions, Impact and Response.” Australian Journal of Political Science 57, no. 3 (2022): 221-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10361146.2022.2122778
- Colic-Peisker, Val, and Mikola Masa. “Mediated Islamophobia and Local Coexistence: A Case Study of Two Muslim-Concentration Suburbs in Melbourne, Australia.” Sociological Inquiry 92 (2022): 848-69. https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.12423. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.12423
- Crime Statistics Agency. “New CSA Study Finds Chronic Offenders Responsible for Large Proportion of Crime in Victoria.” April 19, 2018. https://www.crimestatistics.vic.gov.au/
- media-centre/media-releases/new-csa-study-finds-chronic-offenders-responsible-for-large-proportion.
- Devetak, Richard. “In Fear of Refugees: The Politics of Border Protection in Australia.” The International Journal of Human Rights 8, no. 1 (2004): 101-09. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364298042000212565. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1364298042000212565
- Diamond, Sara. “Right-Wing Politics and the Anti-Immigration Cause.” Social Justice 23, no. 3 (1996): 154-68.
- Di Domenico, Giandomenico, Daniel Nunan, Jason Sit and Valentina Pitardi. “Free but Fake Speech: When Giving Primacy to the Source Decreases Misinformation Sharing on Social Media.” Psychology & Marketing 38, no. 10 (2021): 1700-11. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21479. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21479
- Downing, Joseph. “Blurring European and Islamic Values or Brightening the Good–Bad Muslim Dichotomy? A Critical Analysis of French Muslim Victims of Jihadi Terror Online on Twitter and in Le Monde Newspaper.” Critical Studies on Terrorism 12, no. 2 (2019): 250-72. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2019.1573038
- Dunn, Kevin, Thierno Diallo and Rachel Sharples. “Segmenting Anti-Muslim Sentiment in Australia: Insights for the Diverse Project of Countering Islamophobia.” Ethnicities 21, no. 3 (2021): 538-62. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796821989819. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796821989819
- El Shamsy, Ahmed, and Noel James Coulson. “Sharia.” Encyclopædia Britannica, May 29, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shariah.
- Entman, Robert. “Framing: Towards Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm.” In McQuail's Reader in Mass Communication Theory, edited by Denis McQuail, 51-58. Sage, 1993. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x
- European Center for Populism Studies. “Neo-Nazism.” Accessed November 1, 2022. https://www.populismstudies.org/Vocabulary/neo-nazism/.
- Evans, Carolyn, and Adrienne Stone. Open Minds: Academic Freedom and Freedom of Speech of Australia. Collingwood: Schwartz Publishing Pty. Limited, 2021.
- Ewart, Jacqui, Adrian Cherney and Kristina Murphy. “News Media Coverage of Islam and Muslims in Australia: An Opinion Survey among Australian Muslims.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 37, no. 2 (2017): 147-63. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602004.2017. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13602004.2017.1339496
- “Fact Check: Does Halal Certification Fund Terrorism?” ABC News, April 21, 2015. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-14/fact-check-does-halal-certification-fund-terrorism/6383238.
- Frischlich, Lena, Lara Kuhfeldt, Tim Schatto-Eckrodt and Lena Clever. “Alternative Counter-news use and Fake News Recall during the Covid-19 Crisis.” Digital Journalism 11, no. 1 (2023): 80-102. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2022.2106259
- Froio, Caterina, and Bharath Ganesh. “The Transnationalisation of Far-Right Discourse on Twitter: Issues and Actors that Cross Borders in Western European Democracies.” European Societies 21, no. 4 (2019): 513-39. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2018.1494295
- Gilpin, Dawn. “The Second Amendment vs. the First: The NRA’s Constitutional Bias Perspective on Fake News,” in Fake News: Understanding Media and Misinformation in the Digital Age, edited by Melissa Zimdars and Kembrew McLeod, 95-105. MIT Press, 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11807.003.0011
- Giotis, Chrisanthi. “Dismantling the Deadlock: Australian Muslim Women’s Fightback against the Rise of Right-Wing Media.” Social Sciences 10, no. 2 (2021): 71. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10020071
- Gravelle, Timothy. “Explaining Islamophobia in Australia: Partisanship, Intergroup Contact, and Local Context.” Australian Journal of Political Science 56, no. 2 (2021): 132-52. https://doi.org/10.1080/10361146.2021.1884645. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10361146.2021.1884645
- Greenwood, Shannon. “7. How the U.S. General Public Views Muslims and Islam.” Pew Research Center, July 26, 2017. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/07/26/how-the-u-s-general-public-views-muslims-and-islam/.
- Hanson, Pauline. “Maiden Speech.” Commonwealth of Australia, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives Official Hansard, 38th Parliament (1st Session-2nd Period), No. 8, Tuesday 10 September (1996): 3860-63.
- Hassan, Wasim, Abaid ur Rehman, Asad Zafar, Farwa Akbar and Samyya Masood. “An Application of Fairclough’s Three Dimensional CDA Approach to Fraser Anning’s Speech in Australian Senate.” Linguistic Forum–A Journal of Linguistics 1, no. 1 (2019): 32-35.
- Hogan, Jackie, and Kristin Haltinner. “Floods, Invaders, and Parasites: Immigration Threat Narratives and Right-Wing Populism in the USA, UK and Australia.” Journal of Intercultural Studies 36, no. 5 (2015): 520-43. https://doi.org/10.1080/07256868.2015.1072907. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07256868.2015.1072907
- Hutchinson, Jade. “The New-Far-Fight Movement in Australia.” Terrorism and Political Violence 33, no. 7 (2021): 1424-46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1629909
- Iner, Derya, Gail Mason and Nicole L. Asquith. “Expected but Not Accepted: Victimisation, Gender, and Islamophobia in Australia.” International Review of Victimology 28, no. 3 (2022): 286-304. https://doi.org/10.1177/02697580221084115. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/02697580221084115
- Iner, Derya, and Sean McManus. “Islamophobia in Australia: Racialising the Muslim Subject in Public, Media, and Political Discourse in the War on Terror Era.” In The Rise of Global Islamophobia in the War on Terror, edited by Naved Bakali and Farid Hafez, 36-56. Manchester University Press, 2022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526161765.00010
- “‘Islam is a Disease’: Hanson.” The Sydney Morning Herald, March 24, 2017. https://www.smh.com.au/national/queensland/islam-is-a-disease-hanson-20170324-4s51j.html.
- Jan, Faizullah, and Sayyed Fawad Ali Shah. “‘Invaders’: U.S. Right Wing Media’s Framing of Muslim Immigrants.” FWU Journal of Social Sciences 14, no. 2 (2020): 36-46.
- Klein, Ofra, and Jasper Muis. “Online Discontent: Comparing Western European Far-Right Groups on Facebook.” European Societies 21, no. 4 (2019): 540-62. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2018.1494293. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2018.1494293
- Lipka, Michael. “Muslims and Islam: Key Findings in the U.S. and around the World.” Pew Research Centre, August 9, 2017. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/
- muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/.
- Lowy Institute. “Attitudes to Immigration.” Accessed January 12, 2023. https://poll.lowyinstitute.org/charts/attitudes-to-immigration/.
- Lumsden, Karen, and Emily Harmer. Online Othering: Exploring Digital Violence and Discrimination on the Web. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12633-9
- McGarry, Jade, Halim Rane and Kasun Ubayasiri. “Framing Islam and Islamism in the Australian News Media: A Content Analysis of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and The Australian.” Australian Journalism Review 45, no. 2 (2023): 233-55. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1386/ajr_00134_7
- McSwiney, Jordan. “Organising Australian Far-right Parties: Pauline Hanson’s One Nation and Fraser Anning’s Conservative National Party.” Australian Journal of Political Science 58, no. 1 (2022): 37-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10361146.2022.2121681
- Media Entertainment & Arts Alliance. “MEAA Journalist Code of Ethics.” Accessed February 16, 2023. https://www.meaa.org/meaa-media/code-of-ethics/.
- Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Online. s.v. “Islamophobia.” May 18, 2023. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Islamophobia.
- Michailidou, Asimina, and Hans-Jörg Trenz. “Rethinking Journalism Standards in the Era of Post-truth Politics: From Truth Keepers to Truth Mediators.” Media, Culture & Society 43, no. 7 (2021): 1340-49. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/01634437211040669
- Müller, Karsten, and Carlo Schwarz. “Fanning the Flames of Hate: Social Media and Hate Crime.” Journal of the European Economic Association 19, no. 4 (2021): 2131-2167. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jeea/jvaa045
- Nilan, Pam. Young People and the Far Right. Alternatives and Futures: Cultures, Practices, Activism and Utopias. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1811-6
- O’Donnell, Kate, Jacqui Ewart and Shannon Walding. “Perceptions and Realities: The Main Sources of Information for Non-Muslim Australians about the Religion of Islam and Muslim People.” Journalism 22, no. 4 (2021): 1031-47. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884918808658
- Parker, Samuel. “‘Unwanted Invaders’: The Representation of Refugees and Asylum Seekers in the UK and Australian Print Media.” eSharp 23, no. 1 (2015): 1-21.
- “Pauline Hanson’s Controversial Claims on Halal Certification Reignite Debate on Issue.” 9News, April 7, 2015. https://www.9news.com.au/national/pauline-hanson-claims-halal-certification-funds-terrorism/83f6ee69-193d-40f6-b1a6-c9c5c0651e70.
- Peucker, Mario, and Debra Smith. “Far-right Movements in Contemporary Australia: An Introduction.” In The Far-right in Contemporary Australia, edited by Mario Peucker and Debra Smith, 1-17. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8351-9_1
- Philo, Greg, Emma Briant and Pauline Donald. “The Role of the Press in the War on Asylum.” Race and Class 55 (2013): 28-41. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396813497873
- Press Association. “Fury as Australian Senator Blames Christchurch Attack on Muslim Immigration.” The Guardian, March 16, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/
- mar/15/australian-senator-fraser-anning-criticised-blaming-new-zealand-attack-on-muslim-immigration.
- Rane, Halim, Adis Duderija, Riyad H. Rahimullah, Paul Mitchell, Jessica Mamone and Shane Satterley. “Islam in Australia: A National Survey of Muslim Australian Citizens and Permanent Residents.” Religions 11, no. 8 (2020): 419. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11080419. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11080419
- Rane, Halim, Jacqui Ewart and John Martinkus. Media Framing of the Muslim World: Conflicts, Crises and Contexts. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137334831
- Rane, Halim, Jacqui Ewart and Mohamad Abdalla. Islam and the Australian News Media. Islamic Studies Series 4. Carlton: Melbourne University Press, 2010.
- Reed, Katherine, Kim Walsh-Childers, Kenneth Fischer, and Bill Davie. “Restoring Trust in Journalism: An Education Prescription.” Journalism & Mass Communication Educator 75, no. 1 (2020): 40-45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1077695820904192
- Roberts, Jasmine. Writing for Strategic Communication Industries. Ohio State University, 2016.
- Roberts, Jessica. “The Erosion of Ethics: From Citizen Journalism to Social Media.” Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society 17, no. 4 (2019): 409-21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JICES-01-2019-0014
- Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978.
- Saltz, Emily, Soubhik Barari, Claire Leibowicz and Claire Wardle. “Misinformation Interventions are Common, Divisive, and Poorly Understood.” Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review, October 27, 2021. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-81
- Sengul, Kurt Adam. “‘Swamped’: The Populist Construction of Fear, Crisis and Dangerous Others in Pauline Hanson’s Senate Speeches.” Communication Research and Practice 6, no. 1 (2020): 20-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/22041451.2020.1729970
- Sengul, Kurt Adam. “Performing Islamophobia in the Australian Parliament: The Role of Populism and Performance in Pauline Hanson’s ‘Burqa Stunt.’” Media International Australia 184, no.1 (2022): 49-62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X221087733
- Sharpe, Matthew, Imogen Richards, Maria Rae, Matteo Vergani and Callum Jones. “Political Philosophy and Australian Far-Right Media: A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Unshackled and XYZ.” Thesis Eleven 163, no. 1 (2021): 103-30. https://doi.org/10.1177/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/07255136211008605
- Simon, Adam, and Michael Xenos. “Media Framing and Effective Public Deliberation.” Political Communication 17, no. 4 (2000): 363-76. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10584600050178979
- Sunstein, Cass. #Republic: Divided Democracy in the Age of Social Media. Princeton University Press, 2018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400890521
- Swart, Joëlle. “Experiencing Algorithms: How Young People Understand, Feel About, and Engage with Algorithmic News Selection on Social Media.” Social Media + Society 7, no. 2 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211008. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211008828
- The Unshackled. “About.” Accessed October 1, 2022. https://www.theunshackled.net/about/.
- Visentin, Marco. “Fake News or True Lies? Reflections About Problematic Contents in Marketing.” International Journal of Market Research 62, no. 4 (2020): 409-17. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470785320934719. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1470785320934719
- Wahlström, Mattias, Anton Törnberg and Hans Ekbrand. “Dynamics of Violent and Dehumanizing Rhetoric in Far-Right Social Media.” New Media & Society 23, no. 11 (2021): 3290-311. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820952795. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820952795
- Walter, Dror, and Yotam Ophir. “News Frame Analysis: An Inductive Mixed-method Computational Approach.” Communication Methods and Measures 13, no. 4 (2019): 248-66. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2019.1639145
- Weng, Enqi, and Fethi Mansouri. “‘Swamped by Muslims’ and Facing an ‘African Gang’ Problem: Racialized and Religious Media Representations in Australia.” Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies 35, no. 3 (2021): 468-86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10304312.2021.1888881
- Winter, Aaron. “Online Hate: From the Far-right to the ‘Alt-right’ and from the Margins to the Mainstream.” In Online Othering: Exploring Digital Violence and Discrimination on the Web, edited by Karen Lumsden and Emily Harmer, 39-63. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12633-9_2
- Youngblood, Steven. Peace Journalism Principles and Practices: Responsibly Reporting Conflicts, Reconciliation, and Solutions. Florence: Taylor and Francis: 2016. https://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=4732532. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315648019
- Zelizer, Barbie. The Changing Faces of Journalism: Tabloidization, Technology and Truthiness. Routledge, 2009. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203878453